He was about 40 years old at the time of taking power. Numa ruled for 43 years and is remembered as a peaceful king of Rome who promoted the growth of the city and establishment of religious and civic orders. Numa Pompilius reigned for 43 years. Only after much persuasion from his family he eventually agreed. The choice of the first king after Romulus (753-715BC) was a difficult task but a Sabine, Numa Pompilius (715-673BC), was chosen to be the second king of Rome. He expanded the temple of Jupiter Feretrius to reflect these territorial successes. Numa Pompilius (c. 753-673 BCE) was the second king of Rome. According to Plutarch (46 AD 120 AD), Numa was a remarkably wise and religious man who ordered to construct a temple dedicated to Janus in Rome. 2022 The Arena Media Brands, LLC and respective content providers on this website. During the fourth century AD, Christianity became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire, transforming the office of Pontifex Maximus into the Bishop of Rome for the Catholic Church, whom today we call the pope. He is credited with establishing most of the priesthoods that survived centuries: In order to grant a smoother acceptance of his new decisions, Numa pretended to have meetings with Egeria. See also Life of Numa by Plutarchus. His reign was quite the opposite of Romulus'; guided by the wood nymph Egeria, Numa embraced the power of peaceful rulership over the war and bloodshed that tainted Romulus' reign. Numa Pompilius was a peaceful king, but realized the Romans were a Satisfactory Essays. He was required to wear a special hat and was not allowed to leave Rome for a night, nor see an army arrayed for battle. a foreigner, Numa Pompilius. Where was Numa Pompilius born and where did he live? He died while campaigning against the Sassanid Empire and is believed to have died of unnatural causes. Image of Numa Pompilius on a Roman 48 BC silver denarius coin. The choice of the king takes place by popular acclamation and the people choose in 715 BC. Until the reign of Augustus it would be closed only between the two Punic wars. When did Numa Pompilius become king of Rome? The ancient biographer Plutarch explains the problem with the old calendar: During the reign of Romulus, they had let their months run on without any certain or equal term; some of them contained twenty days, others thirty-five, others more; they had no sort of knowledge of the inequality in the motions of the sun and moon Plutarch goes on to explain how Numa made the calendar more accurate: Numa, calculating the difference between the lunar and the solar year at eleven days, for that the moon completed her anniversary course in three hundred and fifty-four days, and the sun in three hundred and sixty-five, to remedy this incongruity doubled the eleven days, and every other year added an intercalary month (Plutarch, pages 88-89). Study guides. According to Roman myth, Numa became the second king of Rome after Romulus was snatched up to Heaven to become the god Quirinus, or according to another version, murdered by the senators. The neighboring population of Sabines had become part of Rome a generation earlier during the reign of Romulus. Numa ruled for 43 years and is remembered as a peaceful king of Rome who promoted the growth of the city and establishment of religious and civic orders. The door of this temple should be closed in times of peace and kept open in times of war. Greek/Roman myth compared. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". For three great deities of Rome: Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus (Quirinus is the name under which Romulus was worshiped), Pompilius introduced special priests. At the time Numa took over the city, it lacked a cohesive identity; rather, it was a gathering place for the misplaced, with each group retaining their own traditions and cultures. Millennial Pre-Colonial Cultural Influence Is Evident In The Amazon Forest, Anne Neville The Dramatical Story Of The White Queen. In his new role, Numa saw his mission was to bring civilization to Rome and unite the peoples from different tribes and origins. Numa Pompilius (716 - 673 B.C.) Middle Temple Library. Numa. Byzantium was founded by Megarian colonists. The ambassadors shortly explained adifficult political situation in Romeand broke the big news to him he was just elected as the new king of Rome! 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Ruled from 715 to 673 BCE Plutarch claims that Numa was the youngest of Pomponius' four sons, and he was born on April 21, 753 BCE, the day Rome was founded. Numa is said to have reigned from 715 to 673. However, you may visit "Cookie Settings" to provide a controlled consent. In previous posts I described how Numa was Rome's most pious king, instituting the cult of the Vestal Virgins, reforming . Titus Livius (1.18) tells us how an augur performed the appropriate rites and prayers. Numa Pompilius, King Of Rome Photograph. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. There are only legends about his life but no real, historical facts. He had It counted 354 days, and every 19 years there were leap months. Numa Pompilius Legendary Second King Of Drawing. Last Update: October 15, 2022. . Plutarch even mentions a theory that their relationship exceeded the expected god-mortal level and the two actually loved each other and lived together (after the passing of his wife Tatia of course). Scylla And Charybdis Legendary Greek Sea Monsters Choosing The Lesser Of Two Evils, Spir Mountain Cairns: Prehistoric Ancient Monuments To The Dead In Northern Sweden, On This Day In History: Battle Of Lagos Took Place Between Royal Navy Of Britain and France On August 19, 1759, Intriguing Genetics: First Ancient Irish Human Genomes Sequenced, Belenus: Mighty Gaulish God Of Light Often Associated With Lugh And Apollo, Socrates: Great Philosopher And Brave Man Who Still Inspires Many People, Oldest Modern Human Genome Identified With The Help Of Neanderthal Ancestry, Immortal Mimi Spirits In Beliefs Of Aborigines Of Arnhem Land. $33. He was born in a cave but lived in the Sabine city of Cures, the same place as Rome's initial enemy and later king Titus Tatius. The Numa Pompilius: The Roman Empire. He had a key role in the formulation of the religious calendar and is credited with adding January and February to the calendar to bring the number of days in a year to 360. Numa is remembered as a king of peace; however, his successor Tullus Hostilius was anything but a seeker of peace and is remembered as a king of war. For while they are yet alive they are carried upon a bier [frame to carry a corpse] with all the formality of a funeral, their friends and relations attending them with lamentations, and after being brought as far as the Colline Gate, they are placed in an underground cell prepared with the walls, clad in their funeral attire (Dionysius, 2.67.4). According to legend, after the death of his wife, Tatia, Numa took as his lover the nymph Egeria. Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. The Death of King Pompilius According to Roman chronology, Numa died in 673 BC of old age at over 80 years old. 3 Which Roman king was killed by lightning? Antoninianus of Emperor Carus. but kept the most important functions to himself, but introduce the flamines for Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, the deified Romulus. How did Lucius Tarquinius come to power? His father had been a friend of Numa Pompilius but Ancus Marcius was elected by an assembly of the people. He also adjusted the solar and lunar years. He also built a bridge over the River Tiber. The Vestals were freed of the usual social obligations to marry and bear children and took a vow of chastity in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals that were off-limits to the male colleges of priests. First century AD Roman coin depicting the doors to the temple of Janus. Like Romulus he wished to consult the gods before accepting the crown. Plutarch elaborates on the funeral: The senators carried the bier on which his corpse was laid, and the priests followed and accompanied the solemn procession; while a general crowd, in which women and children took part, followed with such cries and weeping as if they had bewailed the death and loss of some most dear relation taken away in the flower of age, and not an old and worn-out king (Plutarch, pages 91-92). Among other erected temples were those of Vesta, Jupiter Terminus, or Fides (Faith). And Tullus, following Pompilius example, had his position officially ratified by each district in turn. Numa Pompilius From the Parallel Lives By Plutarch; translated by John Dryden THOUGH the pedigrees of noble families of Rome go back in exact form as far as Numa Pompilius, yet there is great diversity amongst historians concerning the time in which he reigned; a certain writer called Clodius, in a book of his entitled Strictures on Chronology, avers that the ancient registers of Rome were . The Romans in the city, after Romulus died, elected a Sabine man to be king, so as to make him loyal to both tribes in Rome. As a result, everyone was reasonably happy and any danger of revolution or civil war ceased to exist. II. Egeria Gives the Laws of Rome to Numa Pompilius, Anna Ottani Cavina, Spanish Embassy to the Holy See, Rome, 1806. Why was Numa Pompilius chosen as the king of Rome? After the augur also confirmed that the gods approve, Numa officially became the new king. Ends Cyber Monday: Get your study survival kit for 50% off! It was Numa who built the Temple of Janus on the Forum Romanum. Moreover, a group of plebeian newcomers also joined the ranks of Roman citizens but did not receive any land from Romulus and continued to live in poverty. What did Britain do when colonists were taxed? Born: c. 753 BCE Died: c. 673 BCE Numa Pompilius did a lot for the Roman Empire in the terms of getting of the ground and laying a foundation that could be built from to make it one of the most historical ones known to mankind. 6 Who was the Roman king of the Golden Age? Numa Pompilius (Latin pronunciation: [nma pmplijs]; c. 753-672 BC; reigned 715-672 BC) was the legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus after a one-year interregnum. Essay Sample Check Writing Quality. Numa Pompilius was the second king of Rome, reigning around the 7th-century BC and succeeding the legendary first king Romulus. 1 Page. When we left off I was just about to wrap up the story of Numa Pompilius, Rome's second king. Also he created a religious system and appointed the Roman From Augustus on, being "another Numa" was the highest praise an emperor got except from Christian intellectuals, especially St. Augustine, who considered the king's success in controlling. Be notified when an answer is posted. Romulus was not the king anymore as he was dead. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. He is credited by laying grounds of pretty much every religious institution in the city and keeping Rome without a war for 43 years. Request Answer. times of war. He was 40, living in the countryside around Cures, minding his own business when he was approached by a delegation from Rome. He was a man with a brilliant military reputation, earned by his great feats of the battlefield (Cicero, 2.31). Such a change in such a short time convinced the Romans that their king must have had some divine help. This system would end up in a mess. According to legends, most of Rome's religious institutions could be traced to its founders, particularly Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of . This must have been very helpful for confirming the official story aboutRomulus deathand silencing the advocates of conspiracy theories blaming the Roman Senate for regicide. The doors of this double-doored structure were to be left open in the time of war but closed when Rome was at peace. Why Is A Biscuit Named After Giuseppe Garibaldi Italys Military Leader And Hero? ascended into Heaven and became god Quirinus or murdered by the Senate. Start studying Numa Pompilius. Among other things, he introduced the cult of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, for whom . Each citizen was asked to place stones on the boundaries and the stones became dedicated to Jupiter Terminalis. After Romulus killed his brother, Remus, in an argument, he became the first King of Rome. During his reign, Numa introduced new laws, customs, cults, and holidays. How did Numa Pompilius become king? Legend: IMPerator CARVS Pius Felix AVGustus, c. September 282 c. July 283 (with Carinus in 283). Also, Vestals were one of the very few cults with full-time groups of religious officials. Study History Roman Kings flashcards from zmair classics's University of Central Florida class online, or in Brainscape's iPhone or Android app. Since 2007, the English Wikipedia page of Numa Pompilius has received more than 785,938 page views. Was asked and turned the opportunity down. The solution to the Sabine situation required a slightly more complex approach. During Numas 43 years of peaceful reign, the doors of the temple remained closed. Before war was declared, a priest entered the territory of the state against whom the Romans claimed a grievance and made a public declaration of the complaint, calling on the god Jupiter to witness the injustice, at least as perceived by the Romans. After their time as a Vestal Virgin, they could marry but, according to the ancient historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, And some, though very few, have done this; but they came to ends that were not at all happy or enviable. The Senate chose Numa Pompilius, a very good and wise man, who belonged to the nation of the Sabines. Throughout his life, he was known to abandon all luxury in his . The first thing that Numa did after learning that he had been chosen king was to consult the augurs, to find out if it was the will of the gods that he should be the ruler of Rome. To overcome the rivalry between old and new Romans, he divided Romans to many smaller groups base on their occupation (arts or trades). In addition, the king made a list of successful days (dies fasti) and unfavorable days (dies nefasti). According to Roman chronology, Numa died in 673 BC of old age at over 80 years old. What was the first thing Numa Pompilius after he was chosen to become king? Read more on Wikipedia. According to tradition, during his reign (c. 715-673 BC) Numa revised the Roman republican calendar so that January replaced March as the first month. Written byA. Sutherland AncientPages.comStaff Writer, Copyright AncientPages.comAll rights reserved. Numa Pompilius shown as an effigy on a Roman coin minted by Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso during the reign of Emperor Augustus. When pious King Numa finally succumbed, Tullus was elected by the senate and became king in 673 BC and ruled (supposedly) until 642. Where was Numa Pompilius born and where did he live? He brought to Rome, Vestal Virgins (priestesses of Vesta, goddess of the hearth). and 12 months. Hornblower, Simon and Anthony Spawforth (editors). Despite his peaceful personality and reign, he was held in high respect by otherwise very aggressive Romans. The more skeptical citizens suspected that his political opponents in the senate had done away with him. Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. Numa Pompilius (753-673 BC; king of Rome, 715-673 BC) was an (almost certainly apocryphal) . To the Romans the choice was clearNuma Pompilius, the son-in-law of the old King Tatius. He imported te service of Vesta from Alba Longa and set an allowance and rules (like compelled virginity of the six maidens). Whatever the fate of Romulus, the city was without a leader. What are annual and biennial types of plants? In her circular shire in the Roman Forum was the official flame of Rome, which was attended by six unmarried priestesses called Vestal Virgins. priests, belonging to this system. After the death of the first king of ancient Rome, Romulus, supposedly in 716 BC, the population of Rome was uneasy about the disappearance of their king. built the temple of Janus. Numa soon realized a potential conflict among several groups of citizens. Source According to ancient tradition, the warlike king (and founder) of the city, known as Romulus, was succeeded by the Numa Pompilius, who was not a warrior king but rather a statesman and politician whose reign was characterized by peace and tranquility. Their primary role was to keep the flame ever burning in the temple of Vesta. His father then encouraged him, and so he said yes. According to tradition, he initiated the state cult of gods in Rome, created the so-called Capitoline Triad assigning priests for Jupiter (flamen dialis), Mars (flamen Martialis) and Quirinus (flamen Quirinalis).. The second legendary king of Rome is less well known. Servius Tullius never forgot his mother had been a slave and became such a friend of the poorer parts of society that he became known as "good king Servius". This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The Flamen Dialis was a chief priest who was bound by a strict set of rules and rituals. The second king of Rome Numa Pompilius was known for his wisdom, piety and peaceful attitude. Ancient texts He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions are attributed to him. His claim of divine inspiration naturally created a certain level of doubt among the citizens, so Numa planned a stunt to convince them. Numa politely refused. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". According to Plutarch, Numa was the youngest of Pomponius' four sons with a birth date on the same day of the founding of Rome, which is traditionally celebrated on April 21, 753 BC. By following this ritual, the Romans were convinced that the conflict would be a just war with approval of the gods. . Numa was not thrilled with the news; as a man more inclined to the quiet life in his village he initially refused the offer to be king. Is A Gigantic Ancient City Hidden Underwater In The Bermuda Triangle? He married Tatia, a daughter of Titus Tatius. Nymphs were a category of female divinities that usually appeared in the form of young women. One of Numa's first acts was the construction of a temple of Janus as an indicator of peace and war. Numa Pompilius. Numa Pompilius became the second King of Rome. He devised many rituals which had to be learned by heart and adhered to, but they did not involve any expense. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. What do you do when your child is always negative? Once the decision was made by the senate, a delegation was sent out from Rome to the village where Numa lived to give him the big news. "On the death of Romulus the senate at first would not allow the election of a new king: every senator was to enjoy the royal power in rotation as interrex. If you mention any religious institution of the Roman Republic, there is a good chance its origins were attributed to Numa. Well not so much. More from This Artist Similar Designs. Eventually the senate elected Numa Pompilius as the second king of Rome. Numa established the temple of the god Janus as an indicator of peace or war. According to Plutarch, Numa had an elaborate funeral with representatives in attendance from the neighboring states. A. Sutherland - AncientPages.com -Legends say Numa Pompilius was the second king of Rome, but he was not a warrior king but rather a statesman and politician. 6 - The Romans and the Sabines begged him because they were afraid that they would fall into a civil war if he definitely refused. Numa Pompilius (/num pmplis/; 753-673 BC; reigned 715-673 BC) was the legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus. Numa Pompilius [753 B.C.-673 B.C.] The story of Numa was part of the founding myth of Rome. 20. death legend of Romulus. (1.18-21) Image credit: Marie-Lan Nguyen - Public Domain. Livy gives a history of the doors of the temple up until the time of his writing of Book 1 of his The History of Rome around 27 to 25 BC. There are a number of reasons for this differentiation still visible even from this distance. However, Numa Pompilius could not be a Pythagorean student as referred by Plutarch and a Roman historian Livy, because an Ionian Greek philosopher, Pythagoras was born 100 years later, c. 570 BC. Numa ordered that fish which have no scales, except the scar, should not be offered to the gods. The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". In contrast to the times of king Romulus and the city of Rome involved in wars, the ruler Numa Pompilius wanted Rome to experience more quiet times. As Livy put it, Romulus resorted to a plan for adding to the population that had long been used by founders of cities, who gather a host of shady, low-born peopleRomulus opened a place of asylum in the area that is now enclosed between the two groves as you come down the Capitoline. Numa Pompilius may never have existed, but the Romans looked back to him as the founder of their religion. Numa Pompilius was a peaceful king, but realized the Romans were a war-liking people and decided to get the supports of the gods. Curst be the attempt of Niebuhr. Why are you allowed to use the coarse adjustment when you focus the low power objective lens? Livy and Valerie M. Warrior (translator and notes). Numa Pompilius (/num pmplis/; 753-673 BC; reigned 715-673 BC) was the legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus. ( Public Domain ) After Numa came Tullus Hostilius, and after him Ancus Marcius. Numa Pompilius may never have existed, but the Romans looked back to him as the founder of their religion. The fortune-tellers were successful and Numa put on royal robes. The temple was constructed at the foot of the Argiletum . Tullus Hostilius became the third King of Rome. Sabine king 224 Words. The story goes that in the 37th year of Romulus' reign, he was taken up by clouds during a public ceremony to the gods, and his body was nowhere to be found, something akin to a divine ascension. If he did (Numa ruled for 43 years), he was indeed a truly remarkable Roman leader. The house was almost empty and barely had any furniture. This small step would help to avid many disputes between neighbours. door of this temple should be closed in times of peace and kept open in It was a great honor for the families and the girls. The entire rabble from the neighboring peoples fled there for refuge (Livy, 1.8). It was reported that he had been struck by lightning. Numa Pompilius is known as the king who allegedly established most of the religious structure of Roman society. Numa Pompilius at theLouvre, by Jean Guillaume Moitte. Numa Pompilius was renowned for keeping Rome in 43 years of peaceful cultural and religious growth. Moreover, he introduced a new grouping of citizens. between the two Punic wars. The Romans accepted the Sabines request with one condition, that they pick the Sabine to become the next king of Rome. Open Document. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. To emphasize the importance of this practice, Numa created a new festival for the celebration of this deity. It was from her he allegedly received instructions for establishing new rites. The legend of this king is so well told by Niebuhr, 1 from Livy and the ancient authorities, that we cannot do better than borrow his words. Test Prep. The modern Western calendar is a direct descendant of Numas calendar, and every month traces its name back to ancient Rome. Was it a dream that came true? Does hostile come from hostilius? Numa was said to have authored several "sacred books" containing divine teachings, mostly from Egeria and the Muses. He selected 12 young men for the service of Mars Gradivus the so called Salii. Husband of Egeria of the Sabines; Tatia and Lucretia. Today I will officially finish the story of Numa Pompilius, and I promise, you will never hear his name from me again. By clicking Accept All, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. One order of priests he created was the Flamen Dialis, special priests (flamens) of the god Jupiter. When the required signs of the gods were received Numa Pompilius was crowned king. Add an answer. 2. Statue of Numa Pompilius at the Louvre Museum in Paris, by Jean Guillaume Moitte. Part One: Plutarch's biography of the early Roman king Numa Pompilius is marked by a very different tone than his elegiac account of Spartan law-giver Lycurgus though the two men are presumed by his writings to be contemporaries. A challenge just waiting to be accepted? He . Which king introduced religion to the Romans and why? Livius. According to Roman myth, Numa became the second king of Rome after Romulus was snatched up to Heaven to become the god Quirinus, or according to another version, murdered by the senators. To the captor 300 pounds of bronze shall properly be given. Why did the Roman kingdom fall? Numa invited the same large group for dinner on the same day and by then the house was ready for a huge party full of decorations and plenty of luxurious meals. [2] He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions are attributed to him, such as the Roman calendar, Vestal Virgins, the cult of Mars, the cult of . These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. Numa said that the king has to have the strength of a warrior and the people wanted to expand the territory through war and this was not for him. On her advice, Numa said he was establishing rites that had the approval of the gods and he appointed priests for each of the gods. Mysterious Sumerian Star Tablet And Strange Divine Omens Sacred Knowledge Of The Gods Part 1, Two Huge Olmec Reliefs Recovered After Anonymous Tip. Uploaded By gwangik. Numa created various offices and authorities for civic workers and came up with the months of January and February and a calendar system that influenced our modern calendar. Numa Pompilius was from Sabine origin and because of his exemplary way of life he was chosen king. war-liking people and decided to get the supports of the gods. After killing Remus in a dispute, Romulus began building the city on the Palatine Hill. This group was also growing in numbers and causing unrest and potential larger troubles for the government. The first mention of using this date goes back to the Roman king Numa Pompilius. He had met her at a spring on the south side of the Palatine Hill. He established a new calendar with 12 months of 30 days (with leap months added to align the calendar with astronomical year every 20 years). Genealogy After he and his twin brother Remus had deposed King Amulius of Alba and reinstated the king's brother and their grandfather Numitor to the throne, they decided to build a city in the area where they had been abandoned as infants. He defied his predecessor Romulus, from then on known under the name Quirinus, and built him a temple. the second king of Rome. To drag them into day; Light be the pressure, Numa, Around thy watery bed, May no perplexing problems. The Arena Media Brands, LLC and respective content providers to this website may receive compensation for some links to products and services on this website. This content is accurate and true to the best of the authors knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. I have written over 70 books. Cassius Dio and Plutarch claim Numa was born on the exact day when Rome was founded (that would mean he celebrated his birthday on 21stof April). Especially after being fed up by the temporary rulers rotating every 5 days. The 10-month year had been replaced by a year divided into 12 lunar months. Numa Pompilius may never have existed, but the Romans looked back to him as the founder of their religion. . The duties of the Vestal Virgins included tending the perpetual fire in the Temple of Vesta; remaining virgins; fetching water from the sacred spring (city water was not acceptable); preparing ritual food; caring for the temple; and officiating at the festival for the public worship of Vesta. These and a lot more rites and priesthoods were al alleged to Numa Pompilius. In consequence, the rest, looking upon their misfortunes as ominous, remain virgins in the temple of the goddess till their death, and then once more another is chosen by the pontiffs to supply the vacancy (Dionysius, 2.67.2). Even though he didnt live in Rome, he had strong family ties to that city. The women lived next to the temple of Vestal in the Roman Forum. He built temples, appointed priests and even claimed to have a divine mistress. He was born in a cave but lived in the Sabine city of Cures, the same place as Romes initial enemy and later king Titus Tatius. Numa Pompilius. Though the pedigrees of noble families of Rome go back in exact form as far as Numa Pompilius, yet there is great diversity amongst historians concerning the time in which he reigned; a certain writer called Clodius, in a book of his entitled Strictures on Chronology, avers that The position of Pontifex Maximus remained of great prominence and was often held by the emperor into late antiquity. which is where he appears on the Bible Timeline. Previously the calendar had only ten months, with additional months added by the priests as needed. It does not store any personal data. This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Titus Tatius, the legendary king of the Sabine city of Kures, gave Numa his only daughter Tatia as a wife. The Vestals were one of the few groups of female priests of Roman public religion; nearly all of the other priesthoods were held by men. 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