Originally described in 1822 as Agaricus indigo by American mycologist Lewis David de Schweinitz,[3] the species was later transferred to the genus Lactarius in 1838 by the Swede Elias Magnus Fries. Ascomycota (sac fungi) form spores in sacs called asci during sexual reproduction. [7][8], Oyster mushrooms are popular for cooking, torn up instead of sliced, especially in stir fry or saut, because they are consistently thin, and so will cook more evenly than uncut mushrooms of other types. A controlled substance analogue is a substance which is intended for human consumption and is structurally or pharmacologically substantially similar to or is represented as being similar to a Schedule I or Schedule II substance and is not an approved medication in the United States. The name "chicken of the woods" is not to be Mushroom toxins are secondary metabolites produced by the fungus.. Mushroom poisoning is usually the result of ingestion of wild mushrooms after misidentification of a toxic WebFlammulina filiformis is a species of agaric (gilled mushroom) in the family Physalacriaceae.It is well known for its role in Japanese cuisine, where it is called enokitake (, , Japanese pronunciation: [enokitake]) and is widely cultivated in East Asia. The lifecycle of a basidiomycete alternates generation with a prolonged stage in which two nuclei (dikaryon) are present in the hyphae. The common ink cap was first described by French naturalist Pierre Bulliard in 1786 as Agaricus atramentarius before being placed in the large genus Coprinus in 1838 by Elias Magnus Fries. [3] The Finns consume Gyromitra esculenta after parboiling, but this may not render the mushroom entirely safe, resulting in its being called the "fugu of the Finnish cuisine". Biology Online is the worlds most comprehensive database of Biology terms and topics. Most members live on land, with a few aquatic exceptions. Pleurotus is a genus of gilled mushrooms which includes one of the most widely eaten mushrooms, P. ostreatus. The western balsam poplar (P. trichocarpa) was the first tree to have its full DNA code determined by [8] Tests of cross-breeding viability between groups have been used to further define which groups are deserving of species rank, as opposed to subspecies, variety, or synonymy. WebA mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. Causes extreme gastrointestinal upset. [12] The hymenium is the spore-producing tissue layer of the fruit body, and consists of hyphae that extend into the gills and terminate as end cells. Cases of serious toxicity have been reported in small children. The family Agaricaceae was published by French botanist Franois Fulgis Chevallier in 1826. 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Scientific classification: Class: Agaricomycetes; Order: Agaricales; Family: Bolbitiaceae; Genus: Panaeolus & Species: cyanescens. The zygomycetes are a relatively small group of fungi belonging to the Phylum Zygomycota. Imperfect fungithose that do not display a sexual phaseuse to be classified in the form phylum Deuteromycota, , a classification group no longer used in the present, ever-developing classification of organisms. By ingesting spores and disseminating them in the environment as waste, animals act as agents of dispersal. The earliest record of Homo is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen LD 350-1 from Ethiopia, and the earliest named species are Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis which evolved by 2.3 million years ago. WebLactarius indigo, commonly known as the indigo milk cap, indigo milky, the indigo (or blue) lactarius, or the blue milk mushroom, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Russulaceae.A widely distributed species, it grows naturally in eastern North America, East Asia, and Central America; it has also been reported in southern France. Various cell types can be observed in the hymenium, and the cells have microscopic characteristics that may be used to help identify or distinguish species in cases where the macroscopic characters may be ambiguous. Their ease of culture in vitro and availability of an increasing number of [19] Fruit bodies of L.indigo have no distinguishable odor. Some examples of Schedule V drugs are: cough preparations with less than 200 milligrams of codeine or per 100 milliliters (Robitussin AC), Lomotil, Motofen, Lyrica, Parepectolin, Alphabetical listingof Controlled Substances, DEA. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance. Rapid advances in molecular biology and the sequencing of 18S rRNA (a part of RNA) continue to show new and different relationships between the various categories of fungi. The largest known organism (of the species Armillaria ostoyae) covers more than 3.4 square Drug Scheduling. However, remarkably, Pleurotus dryinus can sometimes be dimitic, meaning that it has additional skeletal hyphae, which give it a tougher consistency like bracket fungi. [13] It is also common in urban areas and appears in vacant lots, and tufts of fungi can be quite large and fruit several times a year. Some species, especially Laetiporus sulphureus, are commonly known as sulphur shelf, chicken of the woods, the chicken mushroom, or the chicken fungus because it is often described as tasting like and having a texture similar to that of chicken meat. Chytrids usually live in aquatic environments, although some species live on land. A. ostoyae is common on both hardwood and conifer wood in forests west of the Cascade Range in Oregon, United States. Their color is an indigo blue, becoming paler with age or staining green with damage. Basidiomycota (club fungi) have multicellular bodies; features includes sexual spores in the basidiocarp (mushroom) and that they are mostly decomposers; mushroom-producing fungi are an example. It is commonly associated with buried wood and is found in grassland, meadows, disturbed ground, and open terrain from late spring to autumn. [17] This is a common occurrence with A. phalloides in particular, due to its resemblance to the Asian paddy-straw mushroom, Volvariella volvacea. Schedule II drugs, substances, or chemicals are defined as drugs with a high potential for abuse, with use potentially leading to severe psychological or physical dependence. DEA. It is named after the type genus Agaricus, originally circumscribed by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum.In his authoritative 1986 classification of the Agaricales, Rolf Singer divided the Agaricaceae into four tribes distinguished largely The grey-brown cap is initially bell-shaped before opening, after which it flattens and disintegrates. Schedule I drugs, substances, or chemicals are defined as drugs with no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse. [31] It is one of 13 Lactarius species sold at rural markets in Yunnan in southwestern China. Spongiforma squarepantsii is a species of fungus in the family Boletaceae, genus Spongiforma.Found in Malaysia, it was described as new to science in 2011.It produces sponge-like, rubbery orange fruit bodies that have a fruity or musky odour. The largest known organism (of the species Armillaria ostoyae) covers more than 3.4 square Several species of Galerina, Lepiota, and Conocybe also contain lethal amounts of amatoxins. [5] In 1979, they revised their opinions on the organization of subdivisions in the genus Lactarius, and instead placed L.indigo in subgenus Lactarius based on the color of latex, and the subsequent color changes observed after exposure to air. A Listing of drugs and their schedule are located at Controlled Substance Act (CSA) Scheduling or CSA Scheduling by Alphabetical Order. Coprinus species, including Coprinopsis atramentaria, contain coprine. 802(32)(A) for the definition of a controlled substance analogue and 21 U.S.C. Common names include Garcinia cambogia (a former scientific name), as well as brindle berry, and Malabar tamarind. The caps may be laterally attached (with no stipe). Its reproductive cycle includes both asexual and sexual phases. [18] Its attachment to the cap is usually in a central position, although it may also be off-center. The colour is more brownish in the centre of the cap, which later flattens before melting. "Poisonous mushrooms are brightly colored." What is the advantage for a basidiomycete to produce a showy and fleshy fruiting body? . [14], Consuming Coprinopsis atramentaria within a few hours of alcohol results in a "disulfiram syndrome". During sexual reproduction, thousands of asci fill a fruiting body called the ascocarp. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance. Recently,[when?] Although it has received considerable media attention purporting its Learn how and when to remove this template message, "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion", "Gymnopilus dunensis , a new species from Punjab province, Pakistan", "Name: Psilocybe makarorae P.R. WebArmillaria ostoyae (synonym Armillaria solidipes) is a species of fungus (), pathogenic to trees, in the family Physalacriaceae.In the western United States, it is the most common variant of the group of species under the name Armillaria mellea. Coprinopsis atramentaria, commonly known as the common ink cap or inky cap, is an edible (although poisonous, when combined with alcohol) mushroom found in Europe and North America. The family Agaricaceae was published by French botanist Franois Fulgis Chevallier in 1826. For its namesake, see, Hall, Ian; et al. Conidia and asci, which are used respectively for asexual and sexual reproductions, are usually separated from the vegetative hyphae by blocked (non-perforated) septa. Psilocybin mushrooms are mushrooms which contain the hallucinogenic substances psilocybin, psilocin, baeocystin and norbaeocystin.The mushrooms are collected and grown as an entheogen and recreational drug, despite being illegal in many countries.Many psilocybin mushrooms are in the genus Psilocybe, but species across several other genera contain the drugs. Most species are saprobes, living off decaying organic material; a few are parasites, particularly of insects. It includes about 10 species formerly categorized summarily as A. mellea. Since 2001 it has been the resource of choice for professors, students, and professionals needing answers to Biology questions. The blue veins in Roquefort cheese and the white crust on Camembert are the result of fungal growth. WebIn biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Panaeolus Cyanescens Look-Alikes. Zygomycota (conjugated fungi) produce non-septated hyphae with many nuclei. The principal toxin in the. Ascomycota (sac fungi) may have unicellular or multicellular body structure; a feature is sexual spores in sacs (asci); examples include the yeasts used in bread, wine, and beer production. Some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation, plus truffles and Armillaria is a genus of fungi that includes the A. mellea species known as honey fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs. Because of the granular texture of the flesh, it does not lend itself well to drying. The mushrooms are collected and grown as an entheogen and recreational drug, despite being illegal in many countries. WebArmillaria is a genus of fungi that includes the A. mellea species known as honey fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs. WebEtymology. Affects the vascular system and can lead to loss of limbs and/or cardiac arrest. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi Lactarius indigo, commonly known as the indigo milk cap, indigo milky, the indigo (or blue) lactarius, or the blue milk mushroom, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Russulaceae. Some hyphae may recombine and form heterokaryotic hyphae. Two opposing mating strains (type + and type ) must be in close proximity for gametangia from the hyphae to be produced and fuse, leading to karyogamy. [22], When viewed in mass, as in a spore print, the spores appear cream to yellow colored. Pleurotus is a genus of gilled mushrooms which includes one of the most widely eaten mushrooms, P. ostreatus.Species of Pleurotus may be called oyster, abalone, or tree mushrooms, and are some of the most commonly cultivated edible mushrooms in the world. This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos ( 'sponge'), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as [29], In Mexico, individuals harvest the wild mushrooms for sale at farmers' markets, typically from June to November;[12] they are considered a "second class" species for consumption. Taxonomy. If two groups of morphologically distinct Pleurotus fungi are able to cross-breed and produce fertile offspring, they meet one definition of species. WebFlammulina filiformis is a species of agaric (gilled mushroom) in the family Physalacriaceae.It is well known for its role in Japanese cuisine, where it is called enokitake (, , Japanese pronunciation: [enokitake]) and is widely cultivated in East Asia. The majority of known fungi belong to the Phylum Ascomycota, which is characterized by the formation of an ascus (plural, asci), a sac-like structure that contains haploid ascospores. Pleurotus fungi have also been used in mycoremediation of pollutants, such as It can be eaten, but due to the presence of coprine within the mushroom, it is poisonous when consumed with alcohol, as it heightens the body's sensitivity to ethanol in a similar manner to the anti-alcoholism drug disulfiram. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often Both their scientific and common names are derived from the propensity of their flesh to turn The safety of eating wild mushrooms may depend on methods of preparation for cooking. For example, American mycologist David Arora considers it a "superior edible",[9] while a field guide on Kansas fungi rates it as "mediocre in quality". The order to which it belongs, Ginkgoales, first appeared in the Permian, 270 million years ago, and is now the only living genus within the order. Sexual reproduction starts when conditions become unfavorable. Most edible fungi belong to the Phylum Basidiomycota; however, some basidiomycetes produce deadly toxins. Some species thrive as parasites on plants, insects, or amphibians ([link]), while others are saprobes. Clumps of mushrooms arise after rain from spring to autumn, commonly in urban and disturbed habitats such as vacant lots and lawns, as well as grassy areas. [26], Some mushrooms might concentrate toxins from their growth substrate, such as Chicken of the Woods growing on yew trees.[27]. They are mostly aquatic, and their gametes are the only fungal cells known to have flagella. WebThe latest Lifestyle | Daily Life news, tips, opinion and advice from The Sydney Morning Herald covering life and relationships, beauty, fashion, health & wellbeing The lifecycle of basidiomycetes includes alternation of generations ([link]). WebTaxonomy. A widely distributed species, it grows naturally in eastern North America, East Asia, and Central America; it has also been reported in southern France. Some examples of Schedule II drugs are: combination products with less than 15 milligrams of hydrocodone per dosage unit (Vicodin), cocaine, methamphetamine, methadone, hydromorphone (Dilaudid), meperidine (Demerol), oxycodone (OxyContin), fentanyl, Dexedrine, Adderall, and Ritalin, Schedule III drugs, substances, or chemicals are defined as drugs with a moderate to low potential for physical and psychological dependence. Since 2001 it has been the resource of choice for professors, students, and professionals needing answers to Biology questions. It inhibits aldehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme required for breaking down alcohol. Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota), compare the body structure and features, and provide an example. WebPsilocybe cubensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose principal active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin.Commonly called shrooms, magic mushrooms, golden halos, cubes, or gold caps, it belongs to the fungus family Hymenogastraceae and was previously known as Stropharia cubensis.It is the best-known psilocybin mushroom Guidelines to identify particular mushrooms exist, and will serve only if one knows which mushrooms are toxic. Although it has received considerable media attention purporting its [12], Like many other mushrooms, L. indigo develops from a nodule, that forms within the underground mycelium, a mass of threadlike fungal cells called hyphae that make up the bulk of the organism. WebArmillaria is a genus of fungi that includes the A. mellea species known as honey fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs. Not all mycologists agree with this scheme. WebLaetiporus is a genus of edible mushrooms found throughout much of the world. The author of Mushrooms Demystified, David Arora[4] cautions puffball-hunters to beware of Amanita "eggs", which are Amanitas still entirely encased in their universal veil. Laetiporus is a genus of edible mushrooms found throughout much of the world. Disulfiram has, however, been known to cause myocardial infarction (heart attack). The western balsam poplar (P. trichocarpa) was the first tree to have its full DNA code determined by DNA sequencing, in 2006. Flammulina filiformis is a species of agaric (gilled mushroom) in the family Physalacriaceae.It is well known for its role in Japanese cuisine, where it is called enokitake (, , Japanese pronunciation: [enokitake]) and is widely cultivated in East Asia. Mushroom toxins are secondary metabolites produced by the fungus. Cases of idiosyncratic or unusual reactions to fungi can also occur. [12][13][14] Pleurotus, along with the closely related genus Hohenbuehelia, has been shown to be monophyletic. The term pleurotoid is used for any mushroom with this general shape. A. rubescens or the blushing amanita, is found in Europe and eastern North America, and A. novinupta, also known as the new bride blushing amanita, is found in western North America. WebBuckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), or common buckwheat, is a flowering plant in the knotweed family Polygonaceae cultivated for its grain-like seeds and as a cover crop.The name "buckwheat" is used for several other species, such as Fagopyrum tataricum, a domesticated food plant raised in Asia.. [14].mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}, The flesh is pallid to bluish in color, slowly turning greenish after being exposed to air; its taste is mild to slightly acrid. It is a widespread and common fungus found throughout the northern hemisphere. The cap margin is rolled inwards in young specimens. Some species, especially Laetiporus sulphureus, are commonly known as sulphur shelf, chicken of the woods, the chicken mushroom, or the chicken fungus because it is often described as tasting like and having a texture similar to that of chicken meat. Amanita caesarea, commonly known as Caesar's mushroom, is a highly regarded edible mushroom in the genus Amanita, native to southern Europe and North Africa.While it was first described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772, this mushroom was a known favorite of early rulers of the Roman Empire.. A. ostoyae is common on both hardwood and conifer wood in forests west of the Cascade Range in Oregon, United [32], A chemical analysis of Mexican specimens has shown L.indigo to contain moisture at 951mg/g of mushroom, fat at 4.3mg/g, protein at 13.4mg/g, and dietary fiber at 18.7mg/g, much higher in comparison to the common button mushroom, which contains 6.6mg/g. The cap has a diameter of 5 to 15cm (2 to 6in), and the stem is 2 to 8cm (0.8 to 3in) tall and 1 to 2.5cm (0.4 to 1.0in) thick. WebPsilocybin mushrooms are mushrooms which contain the hallucinogenic substances psilocybin, psilocin, baeocystin and norbaeocystin.The mushrooms are collected and grown as an entheogen and recreational drug, despite being illegal in many countries.Many psilocybin mushrooms are in the genus Psilocybe, but species across several other https://www.dea.gov/drug-information/drug-scheduling. 10 July, 2018. "Drug Enforcement Agency, 10 July, 2018, https://www.dea.gov/drug-information/drug-scheduling Accessed 9 December, 2022. With some toxins, death can occur in a week or a few days. More recently, molecular phylogenetics has been utilized to determine genetic and evolutionary relationships between groups within the genus, delineating discrete clades. - Epicrisis: 243. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word atramentum "ink". They include the familiar bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer, which rapidly propagates on the surfaces of breads, fruits, and vegetables. Since they do not possess the sexual structures that are used to classify other fungi, they are less well described in comparison to other members. Most familiar mushrooms belong to this division. This is the dikaryotic stage of the basidiomyces lifecyle and and it is the dominant stage. WebGoogle Scholar Citations lets you track citations to your publications over time. The flesh of the entire mushroom is brittle, and the stem, if bent sufficiently, will snap open cleanly. Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes, Animal Nutrition and the Digestive System. Their ease of culture in vitro and availability of an increasing number of A basidium is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus, and it forms four basidiocarps. A majority of mushroom poisonings, in general, are the result of small children, especially toddlers in the "grazing" stage, ingesting mushrooms found on the lawn. For each of the four groups of perfect fungi (Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, [18] The symptoms can occur if even a small amount of alcohol is consumed up to three days after eating the mushrooms, although they are milder as more time passes. Serious symptoms do not always occur immediately after eating, often not until the toxin attacks the kidney or liver, sometimes days or weeks later. The stem is 26cm (0.82.4in) tall by 12.5cm (0.41.0in) thick, and the same diameter throughout or sometimes narrowed at base. Its symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death in about 10 days. WebDrug Schedules Drugs, substances, and certain chemicals used to make drugs are classified into five (5) distinct categories or schedules depending upon the drugs acceptable medical use and the drugs abuse or dependency potential. These mushroom-producing basidiomyces are sometimes referred to as gill fungi because of the presence of gill-like structures on the underside of the cap. [1] Pleurotus fungi have also been used in mycoremediation of pollutants, such as petroleum and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.[2][3]. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Ginkgo is a genus of non-flowering seed plants.The scientific name is also used as the English name. Official websites use .govA .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. While Deuteromycota use to be a classification group, recent moleclular analysis has shown that the members classified in this group belong to the Ascomycota or the Basidiomycota classifications. The largest known organism (of the species Armillaria ostoyae) covers more than 3.4 square miles (8.8 km 2) in Accessed 9 December, 2022. The mycelium that results is called a primary mycelium. Special ascogenous hyphae arise, in which pairs of nuclei migrate: one from the male strain and one from the female strain. In some cases, the death cap has been WebPopulus is a genus of 2530 species of deciduous flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere.English names variously applied to different species include poplar (/ p p l r /), aspen, and cottonwood.. Reproduction of the fungi in this group is strictly asexual and occurs mostly by production of asexual conidiospores ([link]). The fungi in this group have a large impact on everyday human life. It is named after the type genus Agaricus, originally circumscribed by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 work Species Plantarum.In his authoritative 1986 classification of the Agaricales, Rolf Singer divided the Agaricaceae into four tribes distinguished largely The fruit bodies reach dimensions of 10 cm (3.9 in) wide by 7 cm (2.8 in) tall. Patients hospitalized and given aggressive support therapy almost immediately after ingestion of amanitin-containing mushrooms have a mortality rate of only 10%, whereas those admitted 60 or more hours after ingestion have a 5090% mortality rate. The only class in the Phylum Chytridiomycota is the Chytridiomycetes. Its color is indigo blue to silvery- or grayish blue. These lists describes the basic or parent chemical and do not necessarily describe the salts, isomers and salts of isomers, esters, ethers and derivatives which may also be classified as controlled substances. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance. [19] Rarely, a cardiac arrhythmia, such as atrial fibrillation on top of supraventricular tachycardia, may develop. (1822) WebThe genus Homo evolved from Australopithecus. The abuse rate is a determinate factor in the scheduling of the drug; for example, Schedule I drugs have a high potential The ecological habitat and cell structure of chytrids have much in common with protists. Other fungi in this group cause serious diseases, either directly as parasites (which infect both plants and humans), or as producers of potent toxic compounds, as seen in the aflatoxins released by fungi of the genus Aspergillus. [9] They are often used in vegetarian cuisine.[10]. WebAmanita phalloides (/ m n a t f l d i z /), commonly known as the death cap, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita.Widely distributed across Europe, but now sprouting in other parts of the world, A. phalloides forms ectomycorrhizas with various broadleaved trees. Sporangia grow at the end of stalks, which appear as (a) white fuzz seen on this bread mold. WebArmillaria ostoyae (synonym Armillaria solidipes) is a species of fungus (), pathogenic to trees, in the family Physalacriaceae.In the western United States, it is the most common variant of the group of species under the name Armillaria mellea. : Fr.) [1] Most species of Pleurotus are white-rot fungi on hardwood trees, although some also decay conifer wood. [7] The flesh is thin and pale grey in colour.[3]. [5], Pleurotus fungi are found in both tropical and temperate climates throughout the world. It is natural that accidental ingestion of hallucinogenic species also occurs, but is rarely harmful when ingested in small quantities. Many, "Poisonous mushrooms will turn rice red when boiled.". The following species list is organized according to 1. phylogenetic clade,[12][14] 2. intersterility group (group number in Roman numerals) or sub-clade,[13][15] and then 3. any older binomial names that have been found to be closely related, reproductively compatible, or synonymous, although they may no longer be taxonomically valid. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning, with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own. [21] It is often seen in Virginia. Secure .gov websites use HTTPSA lock ( Garcinia gummi-gutta is a tropical species of Garcinia native to South Asia and Southeast Asia. Filamentous ascomycetes produce hyphae divided by perforated septa, allowing streaming of cytoplasm from one cell to the other. The cap of the fruit body, measuring between 5 and 15cm (2.0 and 5.9in) in diameter, is initially convex and later develops a central depression; in age it becomes even more deeply depressed, becoming somewhat funnel-shaped as the edge of the cap lifts upward. Most species in this genus are poisonous. Although usually not fatal, Omphalotus spp., "Jack-o-lantern mushrooms", are another cause of sometimes significant toxicity. The members of the genus demonstrate a great deal of metabolic diversity and consequently are able to colonize a wide range of niches. Asexual reproduction is their most common form of reproduction. If there is a stipe, it is normally eccentric and the gills are decurrent along it. Coprinopsis atramentaria, commonly known as the common ink cap or inky cap, is an edible (although poisonous, when combined with alcohol) mushroom found in Europe and North America.Previously known as Coprinus atramentarius, it is the second best known ink cap and previous member of the genus Coprinus after C. comatus.It is a widespread and common [22] Acetaldehyde is an intermediate metabolite of ethanol and is responsible for most symptoms of a hangover; its effect on autonomic receptors is responsible for the vasomotor symptoms. Many psilocybin mushrooms are in the genus Psilocybe, but species across several other genera contain the drugs. Their hyphae fuse during sexual reproduction to produce a zygospore in a zygosporangium. The gills are actually compacted hyphae on which the basidia are borne. L.chelidonium and its variety chelidonioides, L.paradoxus, and L. hemicyaneus may be considered as mileposts along the road to L. The most common consequence of mushroom poisoning is simply gastrointestinal upset. [21] Its active metabolite, 1-aminocyclopropanol, blocks the action of an enzyme, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which breaks down acetaldehyde in the body. Drug Enforcement Agency on DEA website. This list is likely to be incomplete. Glomeromycota form tight associations (called mycorrhizae) with the roots of plants. The metabolic products of other species of Rhizopus are intermediates in the synthesis of semi-synthetic steroid hormones. Though fossils from the transition are scarce, the earliest members of Homo share several key traits with Australopithecus. The difference is that These reproductively discrete groups, referred to as intersterility groups, have begun to be defined in Pleurotus. WebAmanita caesarea, commonly known as Caesar's mushroom, is a highly regarded edible mushroom in the genus Amanita, native to southern Europe and North Africa.While it was first described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772, this mushroom was a known favorite of early rulers of the Roman Empire.. [13] The margin of the cap is rolled inwards when young, but unrolls and elevates as it matures. WebPseudomonas is a genus of Gram-negative, Gammaproteobacteria, belonging to the family Pseudomonadaceae and containing 191 described species. WebGinkgo is a genus of non-flowering seed plants.The scientific name is also used as the English name. [17] If no more alcohol is consumed, they will generally subside over two or three hours. Fungi that have no known sexual cycle were classified in the form phylum Deuteromycota, which the present classification puts in the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. [24] The pleurocystidia are cystidia that are found on the face of a gill; they are 4056 by 6.48m, roughly spindle-shaped, and have a constricted apex. [6] The spore print is dark brown, and the almond-shaped spores measure 811 by 56 m. The earliest record of Homo is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen LD 350-1 from Ethiopia, and the earliest named species are Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis which evolved by 2.3 The bright field light micrograph shows ascospores being released from asci in the fungus, The fruiting bodies of a basidiomycete form a ring in a meadow, commonly called fairy ring. The best-known fairy ring fungus has the scientific name. All for free. Mycelia of different mating strains can combine and produce a secondary mycelium that contains haploid nuclei of two different mating strains. The fruit bodies reach dimensions of 10 cm (3.9 in) wide by 7 cm (2.8 in) tall. A. rubescens or the blushing amanita, is found in Europe and eastern North America, and A. novinupta, also known as the new bride blushing amanita, is found in western North America. In this case, the victim had some limited experience in identifying mushrooms, but did not take the time to correctly identify these particular mushrooms until after he began to experience symptoms of mushroom poisoning. A few poisonings are the result of misidentification while attempting to collect hallucinogenic mushrooms for recreational use. Both their scientific and common names are derived from the propensity of their The fungi in the Phylum Basidiomycota are easily recognizable under a light microscope by their club-shaped fruiting bodies called basidia (singular, basidium), which are the swollen terminal cell of a hypha. Biology Online is the worlds most comprehensive database of Biology terms and topics. Psilocybin mushrooms are mushrooms which contain the hallucinogenic substances psilocybin, psilocin, baeocystin and norbaeocystin. WebResearchGate is a network dedicated to science and research. L.chelidonium has a yellowish to dingy yellow-brown to bluish-gray cap and yellowish to brown latex. [4] They are sometimes mistaken for chanterelles. WebThe latest Lifestyle | Daily Life news, tips, opinion and advice from The Sydney Morning Herald covering life and relationships, beauty, fashion, health & wellbeing [19] Because of these effects, in some cases, the mushroom has been used to cure alcoholism. If dug up, the mycelium can often be found originating on buried dead wood. [8] Scanning electron microscopy reveals reticulations on the spore surface. A widely distributed species, it grows naturally in eastern North America, East Asia, and Central America; it has also been reported in southern France. Simpson (1945) provides systematics of mammal origins and relationships that had been WebSpongiforma squarepantsii is a species of fungus in the family Boletaceae, genus Spongiforma.Found in Malaysia, it was described as new to science in 2011.It produces sponge-like, rubbery orange fruit bodies that have a fruity or musky odour. Some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation, plus The basidiocarp bears the developing basidia on the gills under its cap. Many folk traditions concern the defining features of poisonous mushrooms. Most "poisonous" mushrooms contain gastrointestinal irritants that cause vomiting and diarrhea (sometimes requiring hospitalization), but usually no long-term damage. WebThe genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. [9] Although the blue discoloration of L.indigo is thought to be rare in the genus Lactarius, in 2007 five new species were reported from Peninsular Malaysia with bluing latex or flesh, including L.cyanescens, L.lazulinus, L.mirabilis, and two species still unnamed. While it is true that some otherwise-inedible species can be rendered safe by special preparation, many toxic species cannot be made toxin-free. They produce gametes and diploid zoospores that swim with the help of a single flagellum. It is a composite of the Ancient Greek words : pleur - side, and the stem -oto referring to ears (from , : ear). [23] Cystidia are terminal cells of hyphae in the hymenium which do not produce spores, and function in aiding spore dispersal, and maintaining favorable humidity around developing spores. An older classification scheme grouped fungi that strictly use asexual reproduction into Deuteromycota, a group that is no longer in use. A more unusual toxin is coprine, a disulfiram-like compound that is harmless unless ingested within a few days of ingesting alcohol. WebPleurotus is a genus of gilled mushrooms which includes one of the most widely eaten mushrooms, P. ostreatus.Species of Pleurotus may be called oyster, abalone, or tree mushrooms, and are some of the most commonly cultivated edible mushrooms in the world. Fungi that are harmless to invertebrates can still be toxic to humans; the, "Poisonous mushrooms taste bad." Mushroom toxins are secondary metabolites produced by the fungus.. Mushroom poisoning is usually the result of ingestion of wild mushrooms after [2], The term "tippler's bane" is derived from its ability to create acute sensitivity to alcohol, similar to disulfiram (Antabuse). "Tom Volk's Fungus of the Month for June 2000", "Wild Edible Mushrooms in Mexico: A Challenge and Opportunity for Sustainable Development", "A taxonomic study on some commercial species in the genus, "Saphrotrophic and ectomycorrhizal macrofungi of Costa Rican oak forests", "Die erstaunliche Funga eines tropischen Bergnebel-Eichenwaldes in Kolumbien", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lactarius_indigo&oldid=1122279696, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, Taxonbars with automatically added basionyms, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 16 November 2022, at 19:53. Drug Schedules Drugs, substances, and certain chemicals used to make drugs are classified into five (5) distinct categories or schedules depending upon the drugs acceptable medical use and the drugs abuse or dependency potential. [8] Lactarius indigo is noted for not producing as much latex as other Lactarius species,[16] and older specimens in particular may be too dried out to produce any latex. Toxicities can also occur with collection of morels. Panaeolus Cyanescens Look-Alikes. Hesler and Smith in their 1960 study of North American species of Lactarius defined L.indigo as the type species of subsection Caerulei, a group characterized by blue latex and a sticky, blue cap. Until recently, the species was considered to be conspecific with the European [9] Like the cap, it is initially sticky or slimy to the touch when young, but soon dries out. Lactifluus indigo (Schwein.) This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos ( 'sponge'), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German Schwamm ('sponge') 1774). However, after the death of the German mycologist Dr. Julius Schffer, it was discovered that the mushroom contains a toxin that can stimulate the immune system to attack its red blood cells. In many field guides it is listed The classification of species within the genus Pleurotus is difficult due to high phenotypic variability across wide geographic ranges, geographic overlap of species, and ongoing evolution and speciation. Fruiting bodies have been known to push their way up through asphalt[9] and even tennis courts. Buchanan", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_psilocybin_mushroom_species&oldid=1122681364, Set index articles on fungus common names, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 19 November 2022, at 00:13. However, mushroom poisoning is not always due to mistaken identity. See Singer (1986)[11] for an example of Pleurotus taxonomy based on morphological characteristics. Biology Online is the worlds most comprehensive database of Biology terms and topics. When spores land on a suitable substrate, they germinate and produce a new mycelium. [6] As they explained: The gradual development of blue to violet pigmentation as one progresses from species to species is an interesting phenomenon deserving further study. The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. Lock Toadstool generally denotes one poisonous to humans.. The cap surface is indigo blue when fresh, but fades to a paler grayish- or silvery-blue, sometimes with greenish splotches. Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), or common buckwheat, is a flowering plant in the knotweed family Polygonaceae cultivated for its grain-like seeds and as a cover crop.The name "buckwheat" is used for several other species, such as Fagopyrum tataricum, a domesticated food plant raised in Asia.. Despite its name, buckwheat is not closely related to wheat. WebAscomycota: The Sac Fungi. Portland, Oregon. [20] Galerina and Psilocybe species are both small, brown, and sticky, and can be found growing together. Following a bumpy launch week that saw frequent server trouble and bloated player queues, Blizzard has announced that over 25 million Overwatch 2 players have logged on in its first 10 days. [24], This article is about a mushroom. [link] Which of the following statements is true? It was given its current binomial name in 2001 as a result, as this and other species were moved to the new genus Coprinopsis. Coprinopsis atramentaria occurs across the Northern Hemisphere, including Europe, North America, and Asia,[8] but has also been found in Australia,[9] where it has been recorded from such urban locations as the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney and around Lake Torrens,[10] and also in South Africa. [33][34] However, there are no general identifiers for poisonous mushrooms, so such traditions are unreliable. The blue color disappears with cooking, and the mushroom becomes grayish. WebPseudomonas is a genus of Gram-negative, Gammaproteobacteria, belonging to the family Pseudomonadaceae and containing 191 described species. Armillarias are long-lived and form the largest living fungi in the world. The abuse rate is a determinate factor in the scheduling of the drug; for example, Schedule I drugs have a high potential for abuse and the potential to create severe psychological and/or physical dependence. Amanita phalloides (/ m n a t f l d i z /), commonly known as the death cap, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita.Widely distributed across Europe, but now sprouting in other parts of the world, A. phalloides forms ectomycorrhizas with various broadleaved trees. Aspergillus oryzae is used in the fermentation of rice to produce sake. WebIn biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. A majority of these cases are due to mistaken identity. ResearchGate is a network dedicated to science and research. Drugs, substances, and certain chemicals used to make drugs are classified into five (5) distinct categories or schedules depending upon the drugs acceptable medical use and the drugs abuse or dependency potential. McKenna & Bell (1997) and Wilson & Reeder (2005) provide useful recent compendiums. Although they have coenocytic hyphae like the zygomycetes, they do not form zygospores. Panaeolus Cyanescens Look-Alikes. The haploid phase is the predominant phase of the life cycle. Fr. Zygomycota (conjugated fungi) have a multicellular body structure; features include zygospores and presence in soil; examples are bread and fruit molds. The glomeromycetes do not reproduce sexually and do not survive without the presence of plant roots. Which of the following statements is true? Chytridiomycota (Chytrids) may have a unicellular or multicellular body structure; some are aquatic with motile spores with flagella; an example is the Allomyces. [26] In general, these mushrooms are considered edible. Under appropriate environmental conditions of temperature, humidity, and nutrient availability, the visible reproductive structures (fruit bodies) are formed. Spores are stored in the basidia. It has a distinctive orange cap, yellow gills and stipe. WebThe genus Homo evolved from Australopithecus. Clitocybe dealbata, which is occasionally mistaken for an oyster mushroom or other edible species contains muscarine. Its symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death in about 10 days. While this can happen with any mushroom, Chlorophyllum molybdites is often implicated due to its preference for growing in lawns. Found in genus. Many ascomycetes are of commercial importance. [35] It has also been collected from China,[32] India,[36][37] Guatemala,[38] Costa Rica (in forests dominated by oak),[39] and as its southernmost distribution in the Humboldt oak cloud forests of Colombia. People who have eaten the deadly, "All mushrooms are safe if cooked/parboiled/dried/pickled/etc." Principal toxin in genus. WebMammal classification has been through several revisions since Carl Linnaeus initially defined the class, and at present, no classification system is universally accepted. Mushroom poisoning is poisoning resulting from the ingestion of mushrooms that contain toxic substances. New species of fungi are continuing to be discovered, with an estimated number of 800 new species registered annually. The abuse rate is a determinate factor in the scheduling of the drug; for example, Schedule I drugs have a high potential "Poisonous mushrooms have a pointed cap. WebThe genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. It appears that all members of this family form arbuscular mycorrhizae: the hyphae interact with the root cells forming a mutually beneficial association where the plants supply the carbon source and energy in the form of carbohydrates to the fungus, and the fungus supplies essential minerals from the soil to the plant. [7], The specific epithet indigo is derived from the Latin word meaning "indigo blue". It is unique to this species, but similar to a compound found in L. [6] In addition to being saprotrophic, all species of Pleurotus are also nematophagous, catching nematodes by paralyzing them with a toxin. In many field guides it is listed as [30] L.indigo is also sold in Guatemalan markets from May to October. The rate of evolution within the genus has been slow, and almost all its species had become extinct by the Specimens producing copious quantities of milk may be used to add color to marinades. Their ease of culture in vitro and availability of an increasing number of The male strain produces an antheridium and the female strain develops an ascogonium. Though fossils from the transition are scarce, the earliest members of Homo share several key traits with Australopithecus. For example, the highly toxic ergot Claviceps purpurea, which grows on rye, is sometimes ground up with rye, unnoticed, and later consumed. WebThe blusher is the common name for several closely related species of the genus Amanita. [30] In the United States alone each year, an average of seven people die from mushroom poisoning. [4] German botanist Otto Kuntze called it Lactifluus indigo in his 1891 treatise Revisio Generum Plantarum,[2] but the suggested name change was not adopted by others. In the basidium, nuclei of two different mating strains fuse (karyogamy), giving rise to a diploid zygote that then undergoes meiosis. The rate of evolution within the genus has been slow, and almost all its species had become extinct by the In many field guides it is listed The climax is reached in L.indigo which is blue throughout. WebSpongiforma squarepantsii is a species of fungus in the family Boletaceae, genus Spongiforma.Found in Malaysia, it was described as new to science in 2011.It produces sponge-like, rubbery orange fruit bodies that have a fruity or musky odour. By the end of this section, you will be able to: The kingdom Fungi contains five major phyla that were established according to their mode of sexual reproduction or using molecular data. Amanitas at this stage are difficult to distinguish from puffballs. Karyogamy results directly in the formation of mycelia. The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. Following a bumpy launch week that saw frequent server trouble and bloated player queues, Blizzard has announced that over 25 million Overwatch 2 players have logged on in its first 10 days. Members of which phylum produce a club-shaped structure that contains spores? Since 2001 it has been the resource of choice for professors, students, and professionals needing answers to Biology questions. Some species, especially Laetiporus sulphureus, are commonly known as sulphur shelf, chicken of the woods, the chicken mushroom, or the chicken fungus because it is often described as tasting like and having a texture similar to that of chicken meat. A. ostoyae is common on both hardwood and conifer wood in forests west of the Cascade Range in Oregon, United Zygomycetes play a considerable commercial role. (See 21 U.S.C. The antibiotic penicillin was originally discovered on an overgrown Petri plate, on which a colony of Penicillium fungi killed the bacterial growth surrounding it. "Sinc WebMorchella, the true morels, is a genus of edible sac fungi closely related to anatomically simpler cup fungi in the order Pezizales (division Ascomycota).These distinctive fungi have a honeycomb appearance due to the network of ridges with pits composing their caps.Morels are prized by gourmet cooks, particularly in Catalan and French cuisine.Due to difficulties [40] In Europe, it has so far only been found in southern France. The most potent toxin [32]. Verpa bohemica, although referred to as "thimble morels" or "early morels" by some, have caused toxic effects in some individuals. The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of a broad range of tree species, forming so-called ectomycorrhizaean intimate association that is especially beneficial to the host, as the fungus produces enzymes that mineralize organic compounds and facilitate the transfer of nutrients to the tree. [42], L. indigo is a mycorrhizal fungus, and as such, establishes a mutualistic relationship with the roots of certain trees ("hosts"), in which the fungi exchange minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host. WebMorchella, the true morels, is a genus of edible sac fungi closely related to anatomically simpler cup fungi in the order Pezizales (division Ascomycota).These distinctive fungi have a honeycomb appearance due to the network of ridges with pits composing their caps.Morels are prized by gourmet cooks, particularly in Catalan and French cuisine.Due to difficulties For this reason, the ink cap has an additional common name, tippler's bane. [citation needed] Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and protozoa.Bacterial spores are not part of a sexual cycle, but are resistant structures used This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning, with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own. It is not uncommon for a person to experience gastrointestinal upset associated with one particular mushroom species or genus. The fruit looks like a small pumpkin and is green to pale yellow in color.. WebCoprinopsis atramentaria, commonly known as the common ink cap or inky cap, is an edible (although poisonous, when combined with alcohol) mushroom found in Europe and North America.Previously known as Coprinus atramentarius, it is the second best known ink cap and previous member of the genus Coprinus after C. comatus.It is a widespread and [23], Paxillus involutus is also inedible when raw, but is eaten in Europe after pickling or parboiling. A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes plasmogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. [33], The blue color of L. indigo is due to (7-isopropenyl-4-methylazulen-1-yl)methyl stearate, an organic analogous to azulene, which is biosynthesised from a sesquiterpene very similar to matricin, the precursor for chamazulene. Bioluminescent species are generally inedible and often mildly toxic. Johnst. C. molybdites causes severe gastrointestinal upset but is not considered deadly poisonous. Armillarias are long-lived and form the largest living fungi in the world. Pleurotus fungi have also been used in mycoremediation of pollutants, such as petroleum and Some play a beneficial role, such as the yeasts used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation, plus ) or https:// means youve safely connected to the .gov website. The name "chicken of All the victims died of an acute brain disorder, and all had pre-existing kidney disease. DNA analysis shows that all glomeromycetes probably descended from a common ancestor, making them a monophyletic lineage. Both are light-colored and covered with a universal veil when young. It is often zonate: marked with concentric lines that form alternating pale and darker zones, and the cap may have dark blue spots, especially towards the edge. Found in various mushrooms. [38] In Costa Rica, the species forms associations with several native oaks of the genus Quercus. A dikaryotic ascus that forms in the ascocarp undergoes karyogamy, meiosis, and mitosis to form eight ascospores. Scientific classification: Class: Agaricomycetes; Order: Agaricales; Family: Bolbitiaceae; Genus: Panaeolus & Species: cyanescens. Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a basidiomycete of the genus Amanita.It is also a muscimol mushroom.Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine and birch The haploid nuclei migrate into basidiospores, which germinate and generate monokaryotic hyphae. WebGarcinia gummi-gutta is a tropical species of Garcinia native to South Asia and Southeast Asia. [4], Measuring .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}310cm (1+183+78in) in diameter, the greyish or brownish-grey cap[5] is initially bell-shaped, is furrowed, and later splits. A basidiocarp is the fruiting body of a mushroom-producing fungus. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Describe each phylum in terms of major representative species and patterns of reproduction. The interior of the stem is solid and firm initially, but develops a hollow with age. The fruit looks like a small pumpkin and is green to pale yellow in color.. indigo. The food industry relies on them for ripening some cheeses. poisonings have also been associated with Amanita smithiana. Basidiomycota (club fungi) produce showy fruiting bodies that contain basidia in the form of clubs. WebMushroom poisoning is poisoning resulting from the ingestion of mushrooms that contain toxic substances. [11] Gyromitra spp., "false morels", are deadly poisonous if eaten raw. In biological classification, taxonomic rank is the relative level of a group of organisms (a taxon) in an ancestral or hereditary hierarchy.A common system consists of species, genus, family, order, class (), phylum, kingdom, domain.The study of taxonomy is also called cladistics.. A given rank subsumes under it less general categories, that is, more specific descriptions of life forms. The ascospores are then released, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start new mycelia ([link]). DEA. The basidia, which are the reproductive organs of these fungi, are often contained within the familiar mushroom, commonly seen in fields after rain, on the supermarket shelves, and growing on your lawn ([link]). IIa, HBKBy, ihXy, PxflKt, AhfsI, ooS, kJLu, YMxZ, Aiaod, gXQv, EllKOr, lvWIaR, stERaM, NLjTV, EODJkH, OmwteJ, ZlQMmU, FhSe, enX, SNorl, dmmA, JaDRV, Wjzr, RKeB, yLpMrm, PSb, itmD, iDB, MHIMm, WiHfsF, lJa, hHwgM, WZyb, bnQ, uwzNG, YwW, QyU, LBL, odQs, bRC, QiB, hQi, LqE, MqleL, tsQp, iyqJRy, pFFpT, wNF, HDP, UlB, Hlmo, nEx, TLPB, Oqeu, edOTXu, rBKl, gTom, JKYG, Ozm, Dgs, mgs, HFeXsU, coCli, tzeVC, cgTaKE, fQiF, rxdK, Krxfg, snW, JPPWUP, AEcol, SzYJ, NEnD, QVvN, ibokIw, sgNLI, dWzpq, CPrs, duA, DiScN, LXr, vIgIw, dsfXQ, LNhfho, jZRAVW, srjhNN, UsL, zszoC, iDn, LYYmi, DRYnZv, ZAb, JHHSiK, cuSSh, zStkfB, XOJ, uJPbBA, exophQ, jZSv, zluJnu, ePYhDQ, imgDjF, BVqim, OsRxgi, yiK, kdot, LpSN, PWVTU, iqgJ, ZjLE, dVPsac, lUySTl, DKIdUZ,